Rti And An Rti Model Essay - 1999 Words

RtI Paper In writing this paper the author will provide her research information about on three terms UDL RTI, and what is MTSS? And expand on answering these seven questions: What role do you think the special education teacher plays in these models? What role do you think the general education teacher plays in these models? What are some of the different ways a school can structure all three of these models? What are some of the best practices or methodologies that should be applied to an RTI model? What are some of the difficulties that schools might encounter when they begin an RTI model? ‘What is your vision for the future of UDL MTSS and RTI? Lastly, how is a referral for special education different for a student who was involved in the RTI model, versus a school without this model? First, I will begin with the term UDL is characterized and defined as a set of principles and techniques for use in the classroom and the design of accessible instructional materials. At its core is the assertion that when instructors increase the number of learning options for students, everyone benefits. Under UDL, we are given a basic overview of the three principles: Presentation, Expression and Engagement. Under UDL are 3 Principles for Learning and providing multiple resources of each one usage: Presentation is used to offer learners various ways of acquiring information and knowledge. Expression is used to provide students alternatives for demonstrating what they know.Show MoreRelatedAn Evaluation Of An Rti Model Essay1293 Words   |  6 PagesUDL RTI, and what is MTSS? And expand on answering these seven questions: What role do you think the special education teacher plays in these models? What role do you think the general education teacher plays in these models? What are some of the different ways a school can structure all three of these models? What are some of the best practices or methodologies that should be applied to an RTI model? What are some of the diffi culties that schools might encounter when they begin an RTI model? ‘WhatRead MoreMTE 562 RTI Model1240 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿ RTI Model Holly Mills MTE/562 Ray Gless May 4, 2015 RTI Model Jasmine Keller is a fourth grade student who has been monitored and reported as a student at-risk. Jasmine has a, â€Å"weak short-term memory that affects her involvement and progress in the general education curriculum in the areas of reading decoding, reading fluency, reading comprehension, spelling, and math calculations. Her reading level is at second grade. Broken down word recognition is at an equivalent of gradeRead MoreAn Evaluation Of Intervention ( Rti ) Is An Assessment And Intervention Model788 Words   |  4 PagesResponse to Intervention (RTI) is â€Å"an assessment and intervention model that enables schools to deliver sound instructional methods to students who might otherwise â€Å"fall through the cracks†Ã¢â‚¬  (Brown-Chidsey Steege, 2010, p. 2). Prior to RTI, students were only referred for the assessment of special education eligibility once they were left behind, or completely failing in school. This method worked to ensure that failing students would eventually end up receiving services, however once they wereRead MoreThe Utilization of Response to Intervention (RTI) Models in Schools1101 Words   |  5 Pages When a school decides to implement RTI at their site all of the school staff becomes involved. The school psychologist is part of team and assists in developing a plan, designing the program they school will use, training, provides assessments, and can assist in aiding both 2nd and 3rd tier students. It is also the job of the school psychologist to aid in determining if students qualify for special education services. 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RTI should be used in conjunction with other measures (e.g. CHC theory, multi-dataRead MoreIntervention, Differentiated Instruction, And The Relationship Between The Processes1487 Words   |  6 PagesProcesses Response to Intervention and Differentiated Instruction are educational methods that ensure that students are getting the instruction that best meets their own specific learning needs and best maximizes their potential to learn and grow. RTI focuses on meeting every students needs by getting more structured and individualized as a learner moves through the tiers of the system. DI is a method that all teachers use in their classrooms on a daily basis to ensure that all students are learningRead MoreComprehension Reflection Paper1199 Words   |  5 Pagesvictorious in their classroom. 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Low Carbon Emission Family Hatchback Development Engineering Essay Free Essays

string(24) " 180 50 to 120 Table 2\." In this quickly developing universe, the chief menace that is being faced is on fossil fuel. As every twelvemonth base on balls by, the sum of fuels used are traveling up the grade of the old old ages. If this rate keeps increasing, the dodo fuels will be wholly depleted to a province that these fossil fuels will merely be known in names and due to the increased usage of these fuels have led to the all sorts of pollution. We will write a custom essay sample on Low Carbon Emission Family Hatchback Development Engineering Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the recent survey, it was proved that automotive Fieldss are one with the greater ingestion and fouling rate compared to other Fieldss utilizing fossil fuels. And, one of those pollution jeopardies is addition in C footmark, which is the entire sum nursery gases produced. In order to confront the approaching menace, a new construct has been developed which would cut down the ingestion of fossil fuels and pollution jeopardies. A construct of an electric auto with lower limit or zero emanation and eco friendly characteristics accommodating to the nature protection is to be developed. 1.0 Purposes: To develop, a construct on a household hatch back vehicle with low C emanation which is powered by electricity and designed for an urban thrust rhythm with aid of quality map deployment ( QFD ) 1.1 Aim: To make proficient research in order to go cognizant of current developments in the market ; To fix a specification for a low C vehicle ; To develop several constructs ; To choose one construct utilizing QFD ; To fix a Gantt chart for the construct development stage of the undertaking. 1.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF THE VEHICLE: Table 1.3.1 is the Final specification of the LCV. Further study will explicate how these specifications were finalised. Length 3650mm Width 1550mm Height 1450mm Wheelbase 2650mm Minimum land clearance 170mm Seating capacity 5 people Kerb weight 1200kg Max loaded weight 1550kg Battery Lithium ion, 1000 rhythms Rated power 80kW Maximum torsion 448Nm Scope 120 stat mis minimum under normal urban conditions Human body frame Aluminium honey comb 1.0 Conceptual Approach: QFD for Electric Vehicle: Table 1.1.1 is the QFD of the whole vehicle. The relation between Controllable parametric quantities and Customers A ; Stake holders demands has be rated consequently, where 9-strongest, 3-moderate, 1-weak, and 0-no relation. This gives an thought on which governable parametric quantity we will hold to work more. The parametric quantities Battery ( 342 ) , Energy Storage Capacity ( 268 ) , Drive Motor ( 231 ) , Wear Resistance ( 239 ) , Price ( 303 ) shows maximal absolute importance, hence, choice process will be carried on, while giving maximal precedence to these parametric quantities. 1.2 Fish Bone: The Fish Bone diagram shows a mode in which over aims will be achieved. Gantt chart of Concept Phase: Practically talking, Concept stage may take 2 to 3 old ages to finish. Chart 1.2.1 is our basic Concept Phase Gantt Chart demoing how a construct of a undertaking is developed ; if we were suppose to make a existent paradigm. 1.4 Gantt chart of the Group Time Plan: Chart 1.4.1 shows clip planning of the group to execute different undertakings by group members. Therefore, from the Gantt chart now we know that which undertakings are over lapping the other undertakings ( blue in coloring material ) , and which undertakings start at the terminal of peculiar undertakings ( ruddy in coloring material ) . 2.0 Batteries: Batteries are one of the most of import things, when it comes to an electric vehicle, as they are merely beginning of energy. Hence, choice of proper batteries plays an of import function for the operation of all the systems in an electric vehicle. This subdivision will cover some thoughts, which were used for choice of our batteries. 2.1 Selection Procedure: Basic thing to get down with was to look into the demands, harmonizing to the market needs. Table 2.1.1 shows demands of EV batteries depending on different features and parametric quantities, adopted by USABC ( United States Advanced Battery Consortium ) . Battery Requirements as per USABC: Table 2.1.1 ( Anderman, Fritz, A ; MacArthur, 2000 ) In our instance we will be sing demands related to long term. Further choice process will be more or less based on these demands. 2.2 Available Electric Vehicle Batteries: A. Nickel Metal Hydride: Nickel Metal Hydride batteries passed assorted bench trials and were best among other campaigners for electric vehicle batteries. They were about capable of giving a calendar life of about 10 old ages. But disadvantages of utilizing Nickel Metal Hydride was that they are holding really low specific energy 60 to 80Wh/kg and therefore a lower scope for the vehicle to run in individual charge. For acquiring higher driving range the size of the batteries will hold to be increased and finally the weight besides increases. B. Lithium ion: And where the Nickel Metal Hydride batteries were neglecting Lithium ion passed, hence they were with every good belongingss of Nickel Metal Hydride and some more advantages. Lithium ion became more suited option to be used for electric vehicle batteries and as they have specific energy runing up to 450Wh/kg and better specific power. Most of the present and approaching electric vehicles are utilizing Lithium ion engineering. C. Lithium Polymer: Lithium polymer shows the potency of being cheaper than Lithium ion and Nickel Metal Hydrides batteries as cost of active stuffs is low in its instance. Besides holding higher specific energy about 650Wh/kg. But, still the procedure of fabricating these batteries is really complicated along with high cost electrolyte. Besides the working temperatures of these batteries restrict them from being a better option ( Delucchi A ; Lipman, 2001 ) . Hence, the most executable option is the Lithium ion ( Table 2.2.1 ) . Features Nickel Metal Hydride Lithium Ion Lithium Polymer Specific Energy ( Wh/kg ) 60 to 80 150 to 450 Up to 650 Specific Power ( W/kg ) 150 to 200 150 to 800 300 Cycles ( 100 % DoD to 80 % of initial capacity ) 600 600 to 1000 200 to 600 Nominal Capacity ( Ah ) 90 100 to 180 50 to 120 Table 2.2.1 Characteristics Table ( Anderman, Fritz, A ; MacArthur, 2000 ) 2.3 Selected Lithium Ion: QFD chart for batteries: Chart 2.3.1 Battery QFD Our battery Requirements and QFD chart gives a clear thought that Lithium ion battery is better than Nickel metal Hydride and Lithium polymer. Besides, from the QFD chart it is really much clear that, Battery Size ( 291 ) , Product Life ( 156 ) , Price ( 116 ) , Durability ( 115 ) , and Charging Speed ( 105 ) , have maximum absolute importance and comparative importance. Hence, for make up one’s minding the concluding specifications of the batteries these parametric quantities will be given more importance as compared to others. 2.4 Trade Offs Among Different Lithium Ion Battery Technologies: Lithium ion itself has many different types of discrepancies or different battery engineerings in it, therefore, farther attack is working on more specific restraints of the batteries. Table 2.4.1 ( Dinger A ; Martin, 2010 ) Safety: Most of import factor for EV batteries is the safety. Chemical reactions taking topographic point inside the batteries, while they are working or because of soaking consequences in high temperatures, which may ensue in fire. Table 2.4.1 shows, Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium ( NCA ) has least safety features, whereas Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt ( NMC ) and Lithium Manganese Spinel ( LMO ) have moderate safety features and, Lithium Titanate ( LTO ) and Lithium Iron Phosphate ( LFP ) have highest safety characters. Life Span: Life span can be considered in two ways one figure of times batteries being to the full charged and dispatch boulder clay it is degraded to 80 % of its to the full charged original capacity and 2nd figure of old ages battery can be used. Performance: Performance in instance of battery is fundamentally how good the battery will execute in different climatic conditions. Specific Energy: Specific Energy is capacity for hive awaying energy per kg of weight. Gasoline has about 100 times more than that of the batteries. Hence, specific energy can besides be make up one’s minding factor for size and weight of the batteries. Higher specific energy can ensue in low weight and smaller size of the batteries. Specific Power: Specific Power is the sum of power delivered per kg of mass. Specific is less of import as compared to specific energy in electric vehicles. Cost: As for now, the Li ion battery packs has cost estimations is between ?700 to ?850 per KWh, but with addition in technological development and competition among different makers, the fabrication costs of the batteries may diminish. The mark shown by USABC is ?250 per KWh by 2020, but someway Nissan is already claiming of supplying battery battalions at same figures with Nissan Leaf. So cost factor is likely to toss off really shortly. Which is better? LTO and LFP do hold really less safety jobs, but when it comes to specific energy they fall behind. And NCA is cost effectual, with higher specific energy, specific power and life span, but lags really much behind in safety. LMO has all the factors average every bit compared to others and short life span. Therefore, sing the demands ( Table 2.1.1 ) , Characteristics Table ( Table 2.2.1 ) , QFD ( chart 2.3.1 ) and all the factors, NMC is the most suited Lithium ion battery engineering. They have moderate safety characteristics, but this can be overcome by utilizing proper battery shell, chilling system and temperature monitoring devices, in sensible cost scope ( Anderman, Fritz, A ; MacArthur, 2000 ) ( Dinger A ; Martin, 2010 ) ( Delucchi A ; Lipman, 2001 ) . 2.5 Battery Manufacturers: Before specifying our concluding battery specifications looking for Battery makers and battery constellations these makers have, is a good thought. Industries have their ain R A ; D sectors, and they welcome the demands of the client. Below are some makers who can supply us with Lithium-ion batteries for our Electric Vehicle. China: J A ; A EEMB LT Energy Japan: Automotive Energy Supply Corporation GS Yuasa Corporation ( Momentum Technologies LLC, 1995-2010 ) 2.6 Battery Specifications: Our choice process therefore, leads us to battery specifications which will carry through our demands. Table 2.6.1 shows our approximative battery specifications. This may alter in footings of size, weight and cost, or even chemical belongingss depending on the makers. Specific Energy 200Wh/kg Specific Power 550Wh/kg Cycles 1000 Rated Capacity 100-180 Ah Nominal Voltage 3.7 V Charging Time 3 to 6 hours and 30 mins for rapid bear downing Weight 90x67x220 ( millimeter ) Dimension 150kg approx Cost 250 to ?300 per kWh / ?7500 to ?9000 per battery battalion 2.7 High Voltage Electrical Distribution System: Electrical Loads in an car can split into two classs – propulsion and non-propulsion. Propulsion burden chiefly consists of motor and/or generator and Non-propulsion tonss include warmers, lamps, power Windowss etc. Maximal power is required for the propulsion loads which can be up to 100KW. Table 2.7.1 gives an approximative thought for power distribution in our instance. Components Power Input ( kilowatt ) Electric Motor 80 HVAC 8 Non-propulsion tonss 3 Entire 91 Table 2.7.1 ( Automotive Handbook, 2007 ) The electric vehicle has power coachs at different electromotive forces runing from lower to higher values and can be every bit high as 300 Vs. Hence, proper power direction and distribution system will be adopted in order to run into the demands of our vehicle constituents ( Fig 2.7.2 ) . Generic Automotive Power/Energy Management and Distribution system ( Shen, Masrur, Garg, A ; Monroe, 2003 ) 3.0 MOTORS AND POWER ELECTRONICS 3.1 Working rule of motors ( Leitman A ; Brant, 2009 ) : When electric potency is applied, the twists generate the magnetic Fieldss which cause the armature to revolve and thereby, generate power. The efficiency of the electric motor ranges from 85 to 98 % . 3.2 Present twenty-four hours EV ‘s: Electron volt Type OF MOTOR RATED POWER RATED TORQUE Nissan foliage AC lasting magnet synchronal motor 80 kilowatt 280Nm Mitsubishi iMiev AC lasting magnet synchronal motor 47kW 180Nm Subaru Stella AC lasting magnet synchronal motor 47kW 185Nm Thinkcity 3-phase asynchronous 34kW 140Nm 3.3 Propulsion system design ( Larminie A ; John, 2003 ) : Constraints Variables Maximum speed Rolling opposition Maximal per centum class Aerodynamic drag co-efficient Initial acceleration Wheel radius Rated speed on a given incline Vehicle mass Maximum gradability Percentage class 3.4 Advantages of electric motors over IC engines: Full torsion at low velocities Instantaneous power evaluation is about 2 to 3 times the rated power of motor Excellent acceleration with a nominally rated motor 3.5 Types of motors ( Larminie A ; John, 2003 ) : Motors are fundamentally categorized into DC motors and AC motors. 3.51 DC motors: Extensively used boulder clay 1990 ‘s Has 2 sets of windings- stator and rotor The torsion is maintained by commutator coppices Weaving in the rotor is called armature and twist in stator is called field twist Advantages: Ease of control due to one-dimensionality Capability for independent torsion and flux control Established fabrication engineering Disadvantages: Brush wear that leads to high care Low upper limits velocity EMI due to commutator action Low power to burden ratio Low efficiency Larger size 3.52 AC motors: Armature circuit is on stator which eliminates the demand for commutator and coppices Types: Synchronous – lasting magnet type, electromagnet type Asynchronous – squirrel coop, lesion rotor. 3.53 Permanent magnet type AC motors ( Hussain, 2003 ) : They use magnets to bring forth air-gap magnetic flux alternatively of field spirals. Types: Permanent magnet synchronal motors Sinusoidal brushless DC motor Trapezoidal or square moving ridge motor Advantages: Supply a loss-free excitement in a compact manner without complications of connexions to the external stationary electric circuits High power to burden ratio High torsion to inertia ratio Excellent field weakening features Disadvantages: Not economical Sensitive to temperature and lade fluctuations 3.54 Switched reluctance motors: Doubly salient, singly aroused reluctance motor with independent stage twists on the stator. Generally stator and rotor are magnetic steel laminations with rotor holding no magnets or twists. Advantages: Simple and low cost machine building Wider changeless power part Bidirectional currents are non necessary, therefore lesser figure of power switches Most of the losingss appear in stator, which is easier to chill High torsion to inertia ratio Torque-speed features of the motor can be tailored as per demand Maximum allowable rotor temperature is high Disadvantages: Torque rippling and accoustic noise observed Particular convertor and higher terminal connexions required, therefore non economical. 3.55 Choice: Torsion to inertia ratio Power to burden ratio Field weakening Torque rippling Acoustic noise Peak torsion efficiency Monetary value and care cost I? motor definition standard DC motors 6 3 3 6 3 6 3 9 39 PM Synchronous motors 9 9 9 9 6 9 Hence it is better to integrate PM synchronal motor or Switched reluctance motor in the electric auto. After mentioning the above chart, its apparent that PM synchronal AC motors are more suited for moderate power demands. 3.6 Power electronics in electric auto ( Hussain, 2003 ) : Electric motor thrust converts stiff DC battery electromotive force to DC/ AC electromotive force with a RMS value and frequence that can be adjusted harmonizing to the control bid. Electric motor thrust: Its typically is a combination of, POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTER + ASSOCIATED CONTROLLER Power electronic accountant: It is made up of solid province devices and grips flow of bulk power from the beginning to motor input terminuss. It functions as ON/OFF switch to change over fixed supply electromotive force into variable electromotive force and variable frequence supply. They constitute of high-power and rapid response semiconducting material devices. Drive accountant: It accepts bid and feedback signals, processes it and generates gate exchanging signals for the power devices of the convertor. It is made up of microprocessors and digital signal processors. Figure: Block diagram of motor thrust ( Hussain, 2003 ) Figure: DC-DC and DC-AC convertors ( Hussain, 2003 ) 3.61 Power electronic switches ( Hussain, 2003 ) : BJT: Bi-polar junction transistors have better power evaluations and first-class conduction, but their thrust circuit is complicated as they are current-driven. MOSFET: Metal oxide semiconducting material field consequence transistor has simpler drive circuits and higher shift frequence, but their upper limit available power evaluations are lesser than BJT. IGBT: Insulated gate bipolar transistor incorporates the advantaged of both BJT and MOSFET and are extensively used in modern twenty-four hours electric autos. SCR: Silicon controlled thyristor have higher power evaluations but requires a commuting circuit to exchange them Off. GTO: Gate turn-off SCR is a type of jury-rigged SCR that can be switched off through a gate signal but their current ingestion is typically 4 to 5 times the current required to exchange them on. MCT: MOS controlled thyristor combines the conductivity features of SCR and gating features of MOSFET. Diodes: They are two-terminal semiconducting material devices and are used in concurrence with other accountant devices. Their map is to barricade the contrary electromotive force flow and supply current way for inductive circuits. 3.7 A typical PM synchronal motor thrust construction: ( Hussain, 2003 ) LIGHT WEIGHT STRUCTURES 4.1 INTRODUCTION TO STEELS Sheet steel has remained the chief stuff used for the building of the organic structure of a motor vehicle of all time since mass production began earlier this century. Steel is comparatively is inexpensive and can be economically formed to do parts with complicated forms and has a high grade of rigidness, higher clang impact opposition and high elastic modulus. In the recent yearss, aluminum metals have been extensively used for car constituents. The metal has aluminium as base metal with hints of Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, manganese, Si, Ti and Zn added to it. The proportions are differed harmonizing to the demand of the terminal merchandise and these metals are about replacing the steels in car sector. The indispensable factors behind this development have been the demands to cut down fuel ingestion by cut downing the weight of auto and increased rider safety ( C.Dasarathy, 2010 ) . 4.2 STEEL USED IN AUTOMOBILEA ­A ­A ­ As sheet As forged subdivisions As wire merchandises Hot rolled sheet t=1.5-7.00mm for organic structure panels, closings, biw parts, sumps, fuel armored combat vehicles, fumes parts. Crank shafts, linking roads, axle parts, tie rods, valves. For tyre support, springs, etc For organic structure, under organic structure structural parts cold rolled -annealed -coated sheet=0.5-1.5mm 4.3 ALUMINIUM Aluminum is a metallic component, and its construction is similar to most other metals. It is ductile and malleable due to its polycrystalline construction. Aluminum is made of grains which interlock when the metal is cooled from molten. Each grain comprises of rows of atoms in ordered lattice agreement, giving each grain an isotropic construction. Although the different grains are slightly indiscriminately arranged with in grain boundaries organizing during the chilling procedure, the atoms within each crystal are usually aligned which makes the metal isotropic, like the single grains. ( Sam Davyson ) 4.4 ALLOYING ADDITIONS FOR AUTOMOBILES A little measure of other elements added to aluminium in order to modify its basic belongingss. They are chromium, Cu, Fe, Mg, manganese, Si, Ti and Zn. These elements can be grouped into those with high solid solubility and those with low solid solubility. 4.5 PROPERTIES SPECIAL STEEL A ; ALUMINIUM ALLOYS Properties Particular steel Aluminium metal Weight A ; denseness Heavier in weight with denseness of 7.85gm/cu.cm Lighter in weight with denseness approx 1/3rdof that of steel. The denseness is about 2.72gm/cu.cm Elastic modulus A ; flexing specific stiffness Elastic modulus of 210 Gpa longitudinal i.e. immature ‘s modulus which 3times more than that of aluminum. But flexing stiffness is more than aluminum which provide more advantage for utilizing in constructions like forepart clang tracks, b-pillars etc. Elastic modulus of 70 Gpa. It has got shock soaking up inclination so largely used in car bumpers. It is used as outer tegument surface in car it has greater specific bending stiffness for level merchandises. Thermal conduction Less thermic conductive than aluminum 3 times more thermic conductive than steel doing it a pick in heat exchange applications. Fatigue Fatigue public presentation of steel is more than twice that of aluminum. Steels such as DUAL PHASE 600 AND TRIP 600 have endurance bounds of 307 Mpa A ; 336 Mpa severally. Structural aluminum class of 5XXX series does non make an endurance bound and go on degrading at higher rhythms. Aluminium grade 5052-0 ranges 124 Mpa at 500 million rhythms. Formability High formable scope than aluminum doing it suited for vehicles titling and overall fabrication hardiness. Formability is about 2/3rdof that of steel. Electrical conduction Nowhere near aluminium electrical music director in power transmittal. High electrical conduction for usage as lines, transformers, coach bars etc. Coefficient of reflection Lesser reflective than aluminum. Excellent reflector of radiant energy throughout full scope of wave lengths. Light reflecting capacity of over 80 % doing it suited for light fixtures. In roofing, it reflect high sum of Sun heat advancing cool inside ambiance in summer. Non-magnetism Steels in general are magnetic. Austenitic chromium steel steels are non magnetic with AISI 304LN, 316LN some steel classs possessing really low magnetic permeableness for usage in constructions near to sensitive electronic devices or medical equipment. It is extremely nonmagnetic and therefore happening extended usage for electrical shielding such as coach saloon, magnetic compass lodgings, computing machine phonograph record fabrication, parabolic aerial etc. High temperature opposition Steels like T-11, T-22, martens tic chromium steel and austenitic chromium steel steel like AISI 310 are extremely creep resistant with ability to defy distortion at high temperatures. Steels incorporating 8 % aluminum. Poor high temperature opposition Low temperature stamina Steels in general posses hapless low temperature stamina. Shows first-class stamina at low temperatures happening usage in infrigidation. Tensile strength Much higher than aluminum and its metals. Tensile strength of pure aluminum is really much lower but, the belongings can be improved by add-ons of Mn, Si, Cu A ; Mg and through annealing aluminum metal has a tensile strength of 295 Mpa. Output strength Very much higher than aluminium metal The mechanical belongingss are improved by add-ons of Mn, Si, Cu, A ; Mg and through annealing. Machinability Shows good machinability in high sulfur steels and lead bearing steels. Show first-class machinability Hardness Harder than aluminum denting inclination less than aluminum Lower hardness than steel. Muffling features Ability to rarefy air bone noise due to its immense mass over aluminum. Inability to rarefy air borne noise compared to steel Strain rate sensitiveness High strain rate sensitive exposing positive strain rate public presentation. Not strain rate medium and has hapless clang worthiness. Corrosion A ; weather opposition Austenitic chromium steel steel like AISI 304 A ; 316 shows first-class corrosion opposition. Shows good gal vanic, cavity and inter-granular corrosion opposition Good corrosion opposition and the rate of corrosion is 1/25thof high opposition steels. It is first-class conditions resistant. Non toxicity Austenitic chromium steel steels 300 series are known for their non -toxic nature. Tin home base steels are used for continuing nutrient, comestible oils etc. Highly non-toxic. Aluminium foil wrapping 500 foil of 0.007mm thickness is wholly impermeable. Aesthetic entreaty Excellent for austenitic chromium steel steels with low care costs. Attractive visual aspect with low care costs. Discoveries use in facing, hardware etc. Table 4.4.1 ( B.V.R Raja ) 4.6 CHASSIS There is batch of accomplishment and engineering behind the development and usage of honeycomb human body. The typical portion of aluminum tegument in honeycomb panel is good in certain countries. Honeycomb human body can take great important tonss on border. But this ca n’t take much burden in 90 grades to that great extent. The design panel is immune to all conditions conditions although they are non designed to expose to atmosphere. The bonding between the honeycomb and the aluminum tegument is really strong to H2O resistant but the bonding is non H2O cogent evidence. So when planing the human body we must take effectual stairss to forestall to maintain route H2O and salts out off the panels and articulations to avoid corrosion and harm to human body. More proficient accomplishment is required while repairing the panels. To the specific demands, you needed to attach the panels without impacting their physical belongings. We ca n’t concentrate or sleep together the pa nels together for perfect bonding. ( Cliffbeer, 2007 ) 4.7 RACK AND PINION SYSTEM In rack and pinion type, the cogwheel on the maneuvering column ‘s terminal is similar to the pinion cogwheel in the differential cut on an angle, and meshed with a steel saloon ( the rack ) toothed on one side. The rack is mounted parallel to the forepart axle and as the maneuvering wheel bends, it operates straight on the tie rods without the usage of a pitman arm, loafer or intermediate ( or relay ) rod. Adding a power aid to this type of guidance is rather simple. The power Piston is really portion of the rack, and the rack lodging Acts of the Apostless as the cylinder. The control valve is located in the pinion lodging. Rotation of the guidance shaft and pinion turns the valve to direct hydraulic force per unit area to either terminal of the rack Piston. 4.8 MACPHERSON STRUT FRONT SUSPENSION The most widely used forepart suspension system in autos of European beginning.The system comprises of a strut-type spring and daze absorber jazz band, which pivots on a ball articulation on the individual, lower arm The prance itself is the supporting member in this assembly, with the spring and daze absorber simply executing their responsibility as oppose to really keeping the auto up. 4.9 MULTI-LINK REAR SUSPENSION This is the latest embodiment of the dual wishing bone system. The basic rule of it is the same, but alternatively of solid upper and lower wishing bones, each ‘arm ‘ of the wishing bone is a separate point. These are joined at the top and underside of the spindle therefore organizing the wishing bone form. The super-weird thing about this is that as the spindle turns for maneuvering, it alters the geometry of the suspension by torquing all four suspension weaponries. ( Chris Longhurst, 1994-2004 ) 4.10 AERODYNAMICS Aeromechanicss encompass all the air flows that base on balls over, around, and through a vehicle they can be subdivided in those impacting performance/ fuel ingestion, comfort, chilling, vehicle kineticss, directional stableness and perceptibility safety. ( Automotive Handbook, 2007 ) 4.11 PRODUCT SPECIFICATION Component Material Human body Aluminum honeycomb Body Steel, Aluminium Exterior panels, Bumpers Aluminum, plastic Interior panels Plastic ( ABS, PVC ) Wheels Aluminum Front suspension MACPHERSON STRUT Rear suspension Multi-link 5.0 Energy Recovery and System In a Low Carbon Vehicle, the energy lost or used, if recovered, could do the system more efficient. In order to retrieve the energy, two types of system are applied. Solar Energy Panels Regenerative Braking System 5.1 Solar Energy Panels ( Darrell D. Ebbing, 2007 ) ( SPI, 2005-2010 ) ( Inventables, 2007 ) Solar energy is the largely available energy in the universe. Taking this into cognition, we introduce solar panels which convert solar energy into electric energy and are stored in the battery. There are two sort of solar panels used: – Transparent and flexible solar panels Plate type solar panels The Semi transparent and flexible solar panels will be placed on each Windowss of the vehicle. So that the both the side of solar panel can be utilised consequently and with the aid of the green house consequence, it helps in bear downing the battery from both the sides. The Plate type solar panels will be placed on the roof of the vehicle and for the use of maximal solar energy All the charges obtained from the solar panel will be stored in the battery utilizing a control unit. Power available 20W ( Plate type solar panels ) 10-14W ( Semi transparent and flexible solar panels ) Charging Time 6-8 hour ( 45 % – 60 % ) Nominal Voltage 12v ( approx. ) Maximal Power Voltage 17.5v ( approx. ) Maximal Power Current 1.1A ( approx. ) Open Circuit Voltage 21.0v ( approx. ) Short Circuit Current 1.3A ( approx. ) Cost 400 ( approx. ) Table 5.1.1 Specification of the solar panels used. ( navitron, 2004 ) 5.2 Regenerative Braking System ( Boxwell, 2010 ) ( Brain, 1998 ) Regenerative braking system is an alternate manner used to bring forth electrical energy from kinetic energy produced through braking. This energy is produced by the rearward rotary motion of the motor used in the vehicle. As vehicle go down the hill or into halting point by braking, the electronic circuit or accountant would do the motor rotate backward with the aid of the tyres and in this instance, the motor which rotates the wheel would move as a generator to bring forth the electricity. This charge produced will be stored in the battery utilizing a control unit. By this system, the energy lost would be recovered and stored, therefore increasing the efficiency of the vehicle ( Automotive constituents and parts, 2008 ) 6.0 Parasitic Losses ( Vehicle Technologies Program, 2009 ) Parasitic loss is chiefly known as the loss of the energy in the system. For electric autos, the parasitic loss is chiefly due to the air current opposition and retarding force, braking and turn overing opposition. It even includes the clash and wears in the vehicle, thermal ( heat ) loads, operation of subsidiary tonss ( air conditioning, warmers, infrigidation, etc. ) . ( Inventables, 2007 ) This parasitic loss can vastly impact the efficiency of the vehicle. Electrical Consumer Power end product Average power end product Electric motor Radio 80kW 20W 75kW 20W Side marker lamps Low beam ( lordotic beam ) License – home base lamp, tail lamps Indicator lamp, instruments Heated rear window Interior warming, fan Electrical radiator ventilator 8W 110W 30W 22W 200W 120W 120W 7W 90W 25W 20W 60W 50W 30W Windshield wiper Stop lamps Turn signal lamps Fog lamps Rear fog warning lamp 50W 42W 42W 110W 21W 10W 11W 5W 20W 2W Entire Installed electrical burden demands Average electrical burden demands 80,895W 75,350W Table 6.1 demoing the ingestion of constituents of an Electric vehicle ( Automotive Handbook, 2007 ) Therefore the parasitic losingss occurred in the electrical constituents = 80,895-75,350=5,545W Hence there is an approximative parasitic loss of 5kW and more in this system. 7.0 HVAC ( Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning ) HVAC ( Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning ) is a engineering that deals with the indoor or automotive environment control with the rules of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics and Heat transportation. Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning are closely interrelated in order to supply a thermic comfort in the indoors. Since it is used to command the quality of air it is besides referred to as Climate control. HVAC is non merely of import in the design of medium to big industrial and office edifices and in marine environments but besides in cars such as autos and trucks where safe andA healthyA conditions are regulated with temperature and humidness. Since, HVAC systems account for so much electric energy usage, the efficiency of the system has to be improved through proper design, installing and scheduled care. HAVAC Systems perform conditioning the air in the undermentioned ways Removing and adding heat. Adding and taking wet. Volume of air flow. Speed of air flow. Removing Impurities in air. Fig 7.1 Ventilation System. ( National Research Council Canada ) Aim Supplying an acceptable degree of tenancy comfort Care of good air quality Minimum energy demands Minimal cost Proper air flow, heating and chilling. 7.1 HVAC TYPES The move to battery powered electric autos poses several challenges when it comes to climate control inside the vehicle. The enormously inefficient internal burning engine ‘s coolant system can easy be tapped for cabin warming are now gone while powering a 3 – 5 kilowatts air conditioning compressor in an EV consumes merely 200 wh/mile atA main road velocities. There are different types of HVACs used in Electric Vehicles. THERMOELECTRIC DEVICES FOR AIR CONDITIONING The thermoelectric HVAC will be optimised to supply the occupant comfort while cut downing fuel ingestion and nursery gas emanations. To maximise energy efficiency, the thermoelectric HVAC system will utilize a distributed warming or chilling design that targets single residents and reduces temperature conditioning to unoccupied rider seating. Tetrafluoroethane ( R-134a ) refrigerant gas is the most common working fluid in vehicular air conditioners since 1995. R-134a has 1300 times greater nursery gas impact than CO2. Car air conditioners leak 10 to 70 g/year. Thermoelectric HVAC systems significantly cut down adult male ‘s part to greenhouse gases while bettering fuel economic system. 7-8 billion gallons/year of fuel usage for automotive A/C. Approximately 6 % of our national responsibility fuel usage ( ELECTRIC VEHICLE NEWS, 2009 ) . Climate CONTROLLED SEATS ( CCS ) This HVAC engineering heats and cools environing constructions such as the star, Windowss, flooring, and place dorsums. These systems consume between 3.5-5 KW. To cut down this burden, heating or chilling can be plumbed straight into the seats. These seats are called Climate Controlled Seats ( CCS ) . Since the place has direct contact with the resident it has much higher thermic conduction compared to air which is a hapless music director. With direct contact chilling or heating burden per individual could be reduced to less than 700 Watts compared to 5,000 W to heat/cool the full cabin ( Fairbanks, THERMOELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS FOR VEHICULAR APPLICATION, 2006 ) . Fig. 7.1.1 Climate Control Seats. ( Fairbanks, 2006 ) Fig 7.1.2 HVAC System in Electric Car. ( Electric VEHICLE NEWS, 2009 ) Advantage This program presents scenarios for increased usage of alternate fuels and vehicle engineering efficiency betterments in order to cut down power ingestion and nursery gas emanations. This system will show a lower limit of 33 % betterment in the energy consumed by a vehicle air conditioning system. ZT ( figure of virtue ) ~ 1 ; COP ~ 0.9-1.0 ; Distributed HVAC System ; P ~ 2 kilowatt ; Power Off Alternator Decreases ~ 0.8 mpg/vehicle ( 0.8/27.5 ~ 0.029 ) low Alternator Efficiency ZT ~ 2 ; COP ~ 2 ; Distributed HVAC System ; P ~ 1 KW ; Power Off Alternator Additions ~ 1.1 mpg/vehicle ( 1.1/27.5 ~ 0.04 ) Either ZT Case ; Power From Thermoelectric Generator Converting Engine Exhaust Heat to Electricity Additions ~ 3 mpg/vehicle ( 3/27.5 ~ 0.11 ) ( Fairbanks, THERMOELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS FOR VEHICULAR APPLICATION, 2006 ) PELTIER EFFECT THERMOELECTRIC Peltier faculties can be used to bring forth electricity, to supply air conditioning or they can be used to supply warming. In fact, Peltier faculties make it possible to construct various warming and chilling devices for applications that require an energy efficiency solution. Peltier faculties are thermoelectric ( TE ) devices that can be used to supply chilling or to bring forth electricity, depending on the application. The faculties work harmonizing to the Peltier/Seebeck consequence, which provides chilling by go throughing a current across two dissimilar stuffs, that ‘s on opposite sides of the device. The current flow causes one side of the device to go hot and the other to go really cold. A Peltier air conditioning solution can be built by configuring the Peltier faculties to accept a current, which will chill one side of the faculty and heat the other. In this constellation, Peltier faculties are frequently referred to as TEC or thermoelectric ice chests. The hot side of the Peltier faculty will necessitate a heat sink and a chilling fan to forestall overheating. The cool side of the Peltier faculty can so supply chilling by doing the Ac fan to blow air across them. The same faculties can besides supply warming by altering the way of the current flow. This will do the hot side to go cold and the cold side to go hot, which makes Peltier faculties an all unit of ammunition warming and air conditioning solution ( Fairbanks, CAR and Vehicle Technologies Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy US Department of Energy Washington, D.C ) . 7.2 AUXILIARY POWER UNIT An Auxiliary Power Unit ( APU ) is used in the motor and electric vehicles in-order to supply energy for the vehicle other than get downing up of engines. It is used for runing the power Windowss and Cabin light even before get downing up of engine. The traditional APU is powered by fuel, which is less efficient and causes more pollution than the emerging battery powered APU ‘s. Fuel cell APU is a typical type which uses fuel cell as a beginning of energy but involves no burning and so is clean and efficient. AUXILIARY POWER UNIT IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES A battery electric vehicle has a comparatively little fuel cell subsidiary power unit ( APU ) to reload the battery battalion during driving. The attractive force of this constellation is the usage of a comparatively little battery battalion ( to let 65 – 110 kilometer of ZEV scope ) while increasing vehicle scope and functionality to be tantamount to conventional vehicles ( 400 – 650km ) . Another cardinal attractive force is that a bulk of kilometer could be expeditiously refueled from the grid leting low or zero CO2 power bring forthing engineering to be deployed in private transit without the tremendous cost and inefficiency of the H2 substructure ( Zizelman, 2000 ) . FUNCTIONS OF APU APU in a auto is responsible for and provides power to the Cooling system Heating system Generator/alternator system Air conditioning compressor SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL APU The combination of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell ( SOFC ) APU and advanced Lithium Ion battery systems appears to do the fuel cell scope extender EV an attractive system in footings of efficiency, weight and cost. The add-on of the APU on the vehicle enhances the value of the vehicle to the electric grid by leting the vehicle to run as a back-up generator for the edifice next to which it is parked. Delphi has been making R A ; D on fuel reforming and fuel cells since 1990. The SOFC plan began in 1999 with a customer-linked plan to develop a 3-5 kilowatt APU merchandise for luxury rider autos running on gasolene. The SOFC APU is a practical first measure for debut of fuel cells in transit. But its linkage to luxury maps ( like electric air conditioning ) alternatively of propulsion and its usage of conventional fuels, alternatively of direct H2, may do it look like a cautious first measure. However a assortment of future integrating schemes for combined rhythm SOFC/ICE, SOFC intercrossed vehicles and the SOFC/Li-Ion scope extender EV offer a broad spectrum of future â€Å" green † applications. In add-on, SOFC is capable of firing H2 or other renewable fuels really expeditiously. The SOFC system will inherently hold highly low emanations. No NOx will be formed in the reforming procedure and the post-combustor will run at temperatures where no NOx and hydrocarbons are for med. But, the SOFC was assumed to accomplish a 40 % efficiency degree for the coevals of electricity ( ( Delphi ) , 2002 ) . 8.0 Final Selection A ; Remarks 8.1 DFMEA: Design Failure Mode Effect Analysis is a systematic analysis of possible failure manners aimed at forestalling those failures. It is an intended preventative action procedure carried out before implementing new or alterations in merchandises or procedures. Table 8.1.1 shows Design Failure Mode Effect Analysis of our construct. 8.2 Risk Appraisal: Battery detonation during clang and acerb spillage Passengers and people in the locality 8 Fire asphyxiator in auto, insularity Remote dismay, acerb spillage solidifier Light weight construction. Aluminium metal organic structure riders 9 airbags Fibre reinforced parts, impact bars, propinquity detectors HVAC working fluid spillage riders 6 none Fluid flow A ; circuit ledgeman Less noise during gesture Pedestrians and bicyclers 5 Horns Proximity detector Electric dazes due to short circuits riders 7 Circuit ledgeman Electric insularity, daze preventer faculties 8.3 Work Packages: Batteries, High Voltage Electrical Distribution Systems Shaikh Jameer Drive Motors, Power Electronics Manjunath T. R Lightweight Structures, Vehicle Dynamics Balakrishna Auxiliary Power Units, HVAC and System Cooling, Aerodynamic Performance Jagathish Energy Recovery and Storage, Parasitic Losses Antony Sunny 8.4 Undertaking Plan Cost Report: Overview of the undertaking program Cost study is shown in Table 8.41 Specification Cost Battery Motor Chassis A ; Body Energy Recovery System HVAC and Auxiliary Power Unit Assorted 9500 5000 2500 2000 4000 5000 9000 4550 2000 1450 3450 4500 500 450 500 550 550 500 Analysis 1200 1000 200 Testing of Components 1500 1200 300 Manufacturing A ; Assembly 2000 1500 500 Testing 1200 1000 200 Table 8.41 Cost Report ( Hamster Internet, Inc. , 2011 ) ( Resciniti, Peshkess, A ; Leonard, 2003 ) ( Cost Variance Stoplights, 2010 ) Chart 8.4.2 Pie Chart of Baseline Cost 8.5 Deliverables: Deliverables are the study, informations or even merchandises which are to be delivered. This is divided in two parts Internal Deliverable and External Deliverables. Internal Deliverables are things which are to be delivered within the people working on the undertaking and external deliverables are those which the people working in the undertaking deliver to the higher governments or users i.e. outside of the undertaking working environment. Table 8.5.1 and Table 8.5.2 show Internal and External deliverables related to our undertaking. Internal Deliverables: Name Description Undertaking and Development Planning Detailss This includes Individual Section Time program, Group Time Plan, QFD of the Undertaking. Weekly Reports Status of the undertaking Selection study This includes describe how a peculiar constituent was selected and/or implemented Required Specifications of the vehicle This includes the concluding specifications External Deliverables: Whole Project Report Report on in what manner the undertaking will be carried out. Cost Estimates Cost Report of the undertaking Undertaking Requirement Details Requirements inside informations includes Machinery and/or Labour, Space required Final Concept and/or Prototypes Working paradigm or Final construct Complete Study of the Project tells about the feasibleness of the undertaking, which are strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. Table 8.6.1 gives usage inside informations on feasibleness of our construct. 9.0 Decision: Use of choice tools like Quality Function Deployment ( QFD ) helped in the construct development, and be aftering stage, including Fish Bone diagram, Concept Phase Gantt chart, and Gantt chart of Group Time Plan helped us in acquiring the concluding specifications of the construct vehicle. And therefore, the construct of the vehicle is developed with C decrease engineerings such as lithium ion batteries, and energy recovery methods which use of solar energy and regenerative braking system. SWOT analysis shows the strength, failing, chances and menaces of the construct and hence, doing the range of research and development much broader. Therefore, we have a ne’er stoping concatenation of construct development and planning, to develop more economic and eco-friendly vehicles. How to cite Low Carbon Emission Family Hatchback Development Engineering Essay, Essay examples

Mahayana Buddhism Essay Sample free essay sample

Buddhism is an Asiatic faith. founded in North East India. and followed by over three-hundred million people worldwide. Buddhism is the 4th largest faith in the universe. Buddhism was founded by Indian Prince Siddhartha Gautama. known as the Buddha. The faith was founded in 520 BCE. Some may state Buddhism is non a faith. but a doctrine. because Buddhists do non believe in idolizing a Godhead God. Buddhism is chiefly followed in China. Japan. Korea. and most of Southeast Asia. Siddhartha Gautama was born in the 6th century B. C. He was born in Lumbini. the state of modern twenty-four hours Nepal. He was the boy of Suddhodana. who was the swayer of the Sakya people. Siddhartha lived a royal life as the prince. Siddhartha’s father forced him to populate a life of privacy. and wanted him to be treated as the best. At 16 Siddhartha married a immature adult females named Yasodhara. Siddhartha was ordered neer to go forth his land. but he ventured off into the universe. When he was faced with the inevitable agony of the universe. he left his land and newborn boy in order to alleviate the incredible agony of the universe. From so on. he encouraged people to follow a way of balance instead than extremism. He called this The Middle Way. At the age of 35 Siddhartha achieved enlightenment. and earned the name Buddha. – The Buddhist World. The Buddha has taught that there are 12 links in the concatenation of Dependent Arising. The Dependent Arising are the instructions of Buddha on how things came to be. how things are. and how things cease to be. Nothing lives independent of other existences. – O’Brien. Barbara. The 12 links are 1. Ignorance. 2. Karmic formations. 3. Consciousness. 4. Name and signifier. 5. Six senses. 6. Contact. 7. Feeling. 8. Craving. 9. Grasping. 10. Becoming. 11. Birth. and 12. Aging and decease. – Buddhism Fast Fact s There are three major divisions of Buddhism. The three major divisions are Theravada. Mahayana. and Vajrayana. Theravada is the Teaching of the Elders. or the Ancient Teaching. Theravada Buddhists strive to go Arhats. or perfected saints who have attained enlightenment and enlightenment. This is considered to merely be possible for monastics and nuns. who devote their full lives to the undertaking. The construct of a supreme Creator God is rejected or at least considered irrelevant to Theravada Buddhism. Buddha is revered above all. but non viewed as God. He is viewed as a supreme sage. or a theoretical account of a to the full enlightened individual. Theravada is the oldest known Buddhist school. founded in India. Mahayana was besides originated in India. and is the largest of the three schools. Mahayana means the â€Å"Great Vehicle. † Mahayana Buddhism is the primary signifier of Buddhism in North Asia and the Far East. including China. Japan. Korea. Tibet and Mongolia. It is besides known as Northern Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhists hope to go bodhisatvas. Bodhisatvas are people who are able to make enlightenments but hold making so out of compassion in order to salvage suffering existences. Mahayana Buddhists teach that enlightenment can be attained in a individual life-time. and this can be accomplished even by a layman. – Mahayana Buddhism. A layman is a individual who is a non-expert in a given field of cognition. Vajrayana is besides known as Tantrik Buddhism. Tantrayana. Mantrayana. Secret Mantra. Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle. Vajrayana Buddhism developed in India and adjacent states. particularly Tibet. Some consider it to be a subdivision of Mahayana Buddhism. but with the add-on of extra stuff. Others view it as a 3rd distinguishable Buddhist vehicle or way. in add-on to Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism. Vajrayana Buddhism has over ten-million followings. and is split into two chief sub-schools. They are Tibetan Buddhism. and Shingon Buddhism. Tibetan is by and large practiced in Bhutan. Southwestern China. Mongolia. Nepal. Northern India. Russia. and Tibet. Shingon Buddhism is by and large practiced in Japan. – Vajrayana Buddhism There are many Torahs of Buddhism. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the three cardinal constructs in Buddhism. They are the Buddha. the Dharma. and the Sangha. Buddha being the Godhead. the Dharma being the instructions. and the Sangha being the monastics and/or nuns. There are besides the three psychotic beliefs of Buddhism. The three psychotic beliefs are Contemplation of Emptiness. Contemplation of Falsehood. and Contemplation of the Mean. Contemplation of Emptiness is to interrupt the Delusion on positions and ideas in order to achieve Sarvajna. Sarvajna is the Wisdom of Omniscience or the Wisdom of All Things. Contemplation of Falsehood is to interrupt the Delusion of ‘Chen-sha’ in order to achieve the Wisdom of the Seeds of Way or the Wisdom of the Path. The Contemplation of the mean is to interrupt the Delusion of Ignorance in order to achieve the Wisdom of the Seeds of Omniscience or the Cosmopolitan Wisdom. – Buddhism in a Nutshell. Equally good as Jewels and Delusions. there is besides the Three Trainings of Buddhism. Buddhism follows three preparation or patterns. These three preparations or patterns. consists of the Sila. which include virtuousness. good behavior. morality. There are besides four Baronial Truths. The Buddha’s first discourse after his Enlightenment centered on the Four Noble Truths. which are the foundation of Buddhism. The four Baronial Truths are Life means enduring. The beginning of agony is attachment. The surcease of agony is come-at-able. and The way to the surcease of enduring. There are five principles of Buddhism. which are the regulations and guidelines of Buddhists lives. The principles are do non kill. make non steal. make non prosecute in sexual misconduct. do non lie. and do non util ize alcohols.

Modern Greece 5 Themes of Geography Essay Essay Example

Modern Greece 5 Themes of Geography Essay Paper Absolute Location of Greece:The absolute location of Greece is located at 39oN. 22oE because that’s where its capital. Athens. is located. Relative Location of Greece:South of Macedonia. West of TurkeyThis is a image of Modern Greece that shows the co-ordinates of Greece. This image relates to the subject location because it shows the absolute location of Greece which is the co-ordinates of Athens which is the capital of Greece and absolute location ever shows the co-ordinates of the capital of a state. This is of import because it shows where the capital of Greece. Topographic point Physical Features:Greece is 80 % made of mountains. This is a image of Greece with a mountain in the background. This relates to the subject because mountains are a physical feature because an illustration of a physical feature is a landform and mountains are a type of landform. This is of import because mountains provide us with tonss of resources. Human Features: We will write a custom essay sample on Modern Greece 5 Themes of Geography Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Modern Greece 5 Themes of Geography Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Modern Greece 5 Themes of Geography Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The Greeks built the Parthenon in award of the goddess Athena. This is a image of the Parthenon. the memorial to Athena. This relates to the subject of topographic point because the Parthenon is a edifice which is a human feature because a human feature is something that was manufactured or created by a human. This is of import because a batch of things worlds build are edifices. Human/Environment Interaction How Humans in Greece Adapt: Peoples adapt in Greece by have oning different apparels for different seasons. For illustration. in the summer people wear short arms to maintain themselves cooled off in the hot portion of the twelvemonth and in the winter wear long arms to maintain themselves warm in the cold portion of the twelvemonth. How Humans in Greece Modify: Peoples in Greece modify by utilizing stuffs for edifices because they’re modifying the environment by destructing the environment in order to do edifices like houses and mills. How the Environment Influences Life/How Humans depend on the environment in Greece: Peoples in Greece depend on the environment for nutrient like fish and farm animal. This is a image of farm animal in Greece. This relates to the subject because people in Greece depend on these animate beings for nutrient. This is of import because without nutrient people would hunger. Motion How Goods Move in Greece: Goods move in and out of Greece by aeroplanes. trains. boats. and choppers. This is a image of an aeroplane transporting goods out of Greece. This relates to the subject because the plane is transporting goods. This is of import because without this there wouldn’t be any manner to acquire goods out of other states to the U. S. or other states. How People Move in Greece: Peoples in Greece move utilizing autos. planes. trains. and boats. How Ideas Move in Greece: Ideas in Greece move utilizing the cyberspace. and by speaking on telephones. Region What Characteristics Unite Greece?Some features that unite Greece are their faith ( Hellenism ) . linguistic communication ( Grecian ) . its mountains. and its attractive forces ( e. g. The Parthenon ) This is a map demoing the mountains of Modern Greece because a feature of Greece are its mountains. This relates to theme because a mountain is a characteristic that is portion of part. This is of import because unifying features bring states together. Other names for Greece:Even though most states call it the state Greece the existent Greeks name their state Hellas and Greek’s functionary name is Hellenic Republic. Bibliography * World Wide Web. nut. wikipedia. org* World Wide Web. greeceathensaegian. com* World Wide Web. enchantedlearning. com* World Wide Web. ericsonlivestock. com* World Wide Web. copterplane. cyberspace* hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Central Intelligence Agency. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/

Adult Prisons Essays - Criminology, Penology, Free Essays

Adult Prisons Essays - Criminology, Penology, Free Essays Adult Prisons Abstract A deep look into juveniles in adult prisons. Touch bases on several smaller issues that contribute to juveniles being in and effects of adult prisons. The United States Bureau of Prisons handles two hundred and thirty-nine juveniles and their average age is seventeen. Execution of juveniles, The United States is one of only six countries to execute juveniles. There are sixty-eight juveniles sitting on death row for crimes committed as juveniles. Forty-three of those inmates are minorities. People, who are too young to vote, drink alcohol, or drive are held to the same standard of responsibility as adults. In prisons, they argue that the juveniles become targets of older, more hardened criminals. Brian Stevenson, Director of the Alabama Capital Resource Center said, We have totally given up in the idea of reform of rehabilitation for the very young. We are basically saying we will throw those kids away. Leading To Prison Juvenile Justice Bulletin Report shows that two-thirds of juveniles apprehended for violent offenses were released or put on probation. Only slightly more than one-third of youths charged with homicide was transferred to adult criminal court. Little more than one out of every one hundred New York youths arrested for muggings, beatings, rape and murder ended up in a correctional institution. Another report showed a delinquent boy has to be arrested on average thirteen times before the court will act more restrictive than probation. Laws began changing as early as 1978 in New York to try juveniles over 12 who commit violent crimes as adults did. However, even since the laws changed only twenty percent of serious offenders served any time. The decision of whether to waive a juvenile to the adult or criminal court is made in a transfer hearing. The two major criteria for waiver are the age of the child and type of offense alleged in the petition. Some jurisdictions require the child to be over a certain age and charged with a felony, while others permit waiver if the child is over a certain age regardless of offense. Still yet, others have no conditions. Juveniles can be tried in all stated in one of three ways: 1. Concurrent Jurisdiction: the prosecutor has the discretion of filing charge offenses in either juvenile or criminal court. 2. Excluded offenses: the legislature excludes from juvenile court jurisdiction certain offenses that are either very minor, such as traffic or fishing violations, or very serious, such as murder or rape. 3. Judicial waiver: the juvenile court waives its jurisdiction and transfers the case to criminal court. Barry Feld, Juvenile Law Scholar, suggests that waivers to adult court be mandatory for serious crimes. Those espousing the crime control model believe that the overriding purpose is protection of the public, deterrence or violent juvenile behavior, and the incarceration of serious youthful offenders in the adult criminal justice system. The rehabilitative justice model view this as an attack on the juvenile justice system, but crime control advocates consider such steps a necessary response to a rising juvenile violence rate. Life in Adult Prison The Southwest Multi County Corrections Center, a two-story adult jail is the largest maximum-security program for juveniles under federal authority. The BOP pays $99.80 a day for each juvenile. About half of the juveniles are over two hundred and fifty miles from home. Distance is on the main criticisms of putting juveniles in the BOP system. Most experts agree that for rehabilitation to succeed, families of jailed youths should be involved in their therapy and lives. Larry Beredtro, President of Reclaiming Youth International, address Obviously, the government needs to cease using nonregional placement for kids. My concern has been with the issue of the federal government placing kids hundreds or thousands of miles away from home. The facility Director Norbert Sickler says the facility helps pay travel expenses for some families and offers free accommodations in the area. We do encourage the kids to keep family connections both by writing and telephone also. The BOP does plan to hou se all federal juveniles within two hundred and fifty miles of their homes by fiscal year 2000. Staff attorney for the Youth Law Center says even that might not be good enough. He stresses the point that no strong after-care programs are set

Short Personal Essay Thesis Sentence

Short Personal Essay Thesis Sentence The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet.- Aristotle Why do famous quotes become famous? What is special about them? If you think about it, famous quotes are succinct statements that make a bold claim. A thesis statement should do the same thing. It should state a big idea in just a few words. Example #1 Consider this quote: He who opens a school door, closes a prison. - Victor Hugo This statement manages to encapsulate an enormous argument in one terse comment, and that is your goal when writing a thesis statement. If Victor Hugo had wanted to use simpler words, he could have said: Education is important for personal growth and awareness.Social awareness develops from education.Education can reform. Notice that each of these statements, like the quote, makes a claim that can be backed up with evidence? Example #2 Heres another quote:Â  Success consists of going from failure to failure without loss of enthusiasm. - Winston Churchill Once again, the statement sets up an argument in interesting but terse language. Churchill might have said: Everybody fails, but successful people fail many times.You can learn from failure if you dont give up. A Word of Advice When creating a thesis, you dont have to use colorful words like the ones that appear in famous quotes. But you should try to sum up a big idea or make a big claim in one sentence. Activity Just for fun, look over the following quotes and come up with your own versions that could work as a thesis statement. By studying these quotes and practicing in this way, you can develop your own ability to sum up your thesis in a brief but engaging sentence. Bette Davis: Attempt the impossible in order to improve your work.Henry Ford: Before everything else, getting ready is the secret of success.Carl Sagan: In order to make an apple pie from scratch, you must first create the universe. The most successful students know that practice always pays. You can read more famous quotes to get the hang of creating concise, engaging statements.

Cost Accounting and Management Decisions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cost Accounting and Management Decisions - Essay Example Company Description Alcoa is an American manufacturing organisation which deals in producing primary aluminium and fabricated aluminium. Furthermore, the organisation is also known as one of the biggest drillers of bauxite and refiner of alumina in an international context. The primary products of Alcoa are divided into two major categories which are aluminium products and non-aluminium products. Aluminium products of Alcoa comprise alumina, primary metals, flat-rolled products and engineered products and solutions. On the other hand, non-aluminium products of Alcoa include industrial fastenings, precision casting and aerospace products (Alcoa Inc, 2013). Impact of Changes in the Variable Cost / Fixed Cost Structure of Alcoa on Cost- Volume Profit Analysis Decisions by Managers Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) analysis is often argued to assist in taking decisions about business operations for any manufacturing organisation. It is applied as a method of inspecting the link between fixed and variable expenses with respect to number of manufacturing units and related profits. In order to use the CVP analysis, there is need for analysing the business operations obtaining an unambiguous understanding of fixed expenses incurred by the business in comparison to variable expenses. Therefore, any kind of changes in the fixed expense and variable expenses can impact on CVP analysis and product manufacturing decisions of a particular business like Alcoa. For instance, through CVP analysis, Alcoa can determine the cost of its products more accurately than the traditional method. As a CVP analysis develops a clear understanding of the fixed and variable costs incurred by a manufacturing firm, accountants and managers are likely to gain better control on the total costs of any product comprising certain fixed and variable components. With a better control on the total cost, these components can be used in order to clarify variations in product price as well as variations in expense s. As the number of quantity produced increases, per unit variable and fixed expenses are quite likely to decrease to a certain extent. Hence, per unit expenses will also reduce with respect to a decline in fixed and variable expenses rewarding the company with greater opportunity to serve its customers either with increased supply quantity or at a competitive price maintaining its profitability. Stating precisely, by understanding the fixed and variable expenses structure of Alcoa, the managers of the organisation can determine the level to which minimisation of prices of products would not compromise the profit gain per unit (Wiley, 2004). Analysis of the Current Cost System of Alcoa There are two major types of costing system which can be used by an organisation namely traditional costing system and Activity Based Costing (ABC) system. In this context, it has been observed that Alcoa uses the ABC costing system in its business operations for determining the cost of products as we ll as for framing its budgeting strategies (Krishnan, 2006). ABC system divides every manufacturing activity explicitly and determines the portion of overhead expenses which are used for manufacturing one unit of a product. Contextually, the ABC system makes possible for Alcoa to establish more comprehensive factory management structures. With an apparent view of cost of products grounded on ABC system, the managers of Alcoa are

Ideas about disseration topic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ideas about disseration topic - Assignment Example There are limited research papers written on this particular topic. Impact of land acquisition helps to reveal trend in present economy and its association with livelihood. The common impacts are decreased social welfare, unsuccessful employment and lack of social network. Compensation is greatly affected when farmland is acquired due to various reasons (Zhao, 2013). The main development zones in Suzhou are Xiangcheng district, Industrial Park of Suzhou, Wuzhong and Suzhou New District. Rational for the study is - economic development in China is an alarming issue but impact of land acquisition is not widely observed in any research study. This study shall also encompass other related factors. Firstly policies or institutions which govern land acquisition mechanism in China would be incorporated in this particular study. Household livelihood situation shall also be a part of the research study. Economic development of Suzhou is sustained through land acquisition. This aspect would be upheld in the study. It shall not only focus on impact of farmland acquisition but also methods used by people to cope with changes occurring in livelihood. There would be livelihood conditions analyzed through utilizing quantitative and qualitative mechanisms. The data collection methods to be used in the study shall also highlight farmer’s opinions in terms of relationship between farmland acquisition and state of livelihood. The major aim of the research study is to analyze impact of land acquisition on farmer’s livelihood. Natural resources and environment are closely knitted with human activities. Recent economic development has greatly altered man-land relationship. Urbanization can be treated as a procedure to resolve agricultural problems. Urban development requires maximum utilization of land resources in order to facilitate urban construction. This study shall also aim at understanding the concept of

Non-Art in Popular Culture Essay Example for Free

Non-Art in Popular Culture Essay When discussing art in popular culture there are very few boundaries to adhere to. Almost any form of media can be considered as art. But not all works are good examples of art and there are several determining factors that help to decide on the artistic quality of a piece. This essay will discuss in response to the above quote the identifiable characteristics of what could be considered art in contemporary pop culture. It will deconstruct the some of the most prominent types of art in popular culture including street art, music video and advertisements or commercial art. And under which circumstances are they considered to be art whether this is the intention of the piece, or the creative process that surrounds it or simply the aesthetic values that it holds. It will also discuss if works produced solely for commercial propaganda are still considered art. And if the artistic values of the work are influenced on the environment in which it resides. These three determining factors will help distinguish between art and non art in contemporary pop culture. Art in popular culture varies widely in a range of creative forms and media. Popular culture or ‘pop’ culture has a heavy influence on much of the works that are created by artists today. (Gibbons, 2005, p. 1) These include all forms of street and public art including graffiti and stencil art that often make statements on pop culture. And also in a more formal environment including galleries and art museums where there is a large array of contemporary works which reflect on these elements of consumerism. There are numerous well recognised artists that have concentrated much of their practice on consumerism and culture. Andy Warhol, is a founder in bringing consumerism to the high art scene in the 1960’s (Livingstone 1992), something that had not being done before. A more recent take on this concept is Takashi Murakami and the art movement ‘Super Flat’ which concentrates on Japanese pop culture and particularly anime and manga. (n. a 2009 Superflat art) Art is not only influenced by popular culture but it makes up a large part of influential media for popular culture. This form of art can be recognised directly in advertising, music, music videos, cartoons and any other form of media that creatively puts forth a message, more often that not for commercial propaganda. This is not always the case but this lower form of more accessible art is completely open to the public because it is not hemmed in by the confines or laws of the gallery system or the museum. (Stowers 1997) And it quite often forced into peoples lives, by occurring in a public space society are forced into viewing these creative works that promote popular culture through advertisements billboards television radio and generally in any public space just as they are exposed to graffiti art and vandalism. More often than not the environment in which the artwork resides in impacts the values that people give the piece but this is not the only thing that should be considered when depicting the piece as several factors impact the merit of the work. These can include the creative process involved, the purpose of the work and the aesthetic values of the final piece. (Johnstone 2006) The creative process that is involved in creating an art piece may have huge effects on the final outcome. In some cases it’s the process that is the work, in others cases it can be just important in developing the meanings and values behind the work and also some pieces may not be understood fully until the intentional processes are understood. The creative process has being described in four steps these are Preparation, Incubation, Illumination and Implementation. (Charlie, 2008) Going through this four step process is not always occur consciously but has an impact on the outcomes. (Konradsson 1999) Pieces that do not have a creative intention or process behind them can be severely limited in creative outcome and therefore have limited merit as art. In this case it severely relies on the aesthetic values that other people then place on the work. And if it has little appeal in terms of colour, line, balance, rhythm and other principles and elements and no creative meaning then is generally not considered to be art. The purpose of the work can also impact the process of how a piece is created. Depending on whether it is for commercial use or purely artistic intentions there can be a lengthy design process which is very calculated in terms of design. The final impact the work is strongly controlled through the elements and principles of design. This is generally used in commercial art such as illustration, graphic design, and advertising and communication media. All these forms of creative work hold artistic value but are not necessarily considered art to the general public as it is not presented as art but takes on a different primary form, advertising. (Gibbons 2005) This is a similar concept as street art or graffiti as it generally seen as a form of vandalism and can be considered as an eyesore. Though people are more likely to see graffiti for its artistic values and intentions as it dose not generally hold the same connotation as advertising. The reasons and values for why one might engage in graffiti art are as varied as the artists who produce it. A chief reason is the â€Å"prospect of fame and recognition of ones artistic talent. Graffiti is also a form of self expression. The art as writing is a creative method of communicating with other writers and the general public. † (Stowers 1997) What it communicates is the artists identity, expression, and ideas like all other art forms but is forced into the public eye unlike art in a gallery. Graffiti is fast becoming popular as a preferred art form of many contemporary artists and hold the same fundamental artistic intentions as any other art form. As art we see in galleries have purely the intentions of being art we are more likely to consider that it is art. (Hester 2007) And we find some way of connecting to it via feeling and aesthetic value or the appreciation of the process. The placement of a piece in relation to its surroundings also impacts on the effect it has for example seeing an advertising piece in a gallery we would assume it to be art and created to make a statement about advertising. Where as if it were to be place on a billboard we would consider the primary reason is the promotion of a particular product. It is very difficult to define what art is exactly. According to many artistic directors and critics there is not one single definition of art. Art historian Robert Rosenblum believes that the idea of defining art is so  remote [today] that he doesnt think anyone would dare to do it. (Witcombe n. d)And that more or less anything can be considered as art. † (Witcombe n. d) Goldmans aesthetic theory (2005, 345) is of use to clarify the problem of location and presentation in relation to graffiti art. Goldman ( 2005, 346) claims that ‘art takes us to other worlds in a manner that is quite fulfilling sensually and aesthetically’ The are many determining factors that help us see the artistic values in works how we as individuals read and interpret these through out the work is a matter of pure personal opinion. Some personal factors that establish our opinions on creative works are our knowledge and understanding of art or a piece in particular, likes and dislikes and how we relate to the piece. This combined with the values of the piece that include; the process, the intention, the environment in which it is placed and the visual aesthetic values of the work determine how we personally consider the impact of the work. Many people consider art as something appealing to the eye or ear but much of contemporary art is not like this and a greater understanding of the work is needed to gain an insight to the values is holds. (n. a. 2009) For most people when art becomes hard or impossible to understand right away we tend to question its merit. This is particularly the case for graffiti as some may argue (Stowers 1997) even when it is in a gallery environment it is too hard to understand, though this should not be a determining factor to deciding whether is considered art as many art work considers deeper intrinsic values. Most of the opposition to graffiti art is due to ‘its location and bold, unexpected, and unconventional presentation,’ (Stowers 1997) but its presentation and often illegal location does not necessarily disqualify it as art either. The major determining factor is the creative value â€Å"the ability to produce complicated pieces is what separates the tagger from the graffiti artist; graffitist for short. Taggers scribble and graffitists do art. † (Stowers 1997) So as we can see there are many different forms of art in contemporary pop culture including those that are influenced by pop culture and those that influence pop culture. These can be all forms of Digital Media, advertising, illustration and music as well as art we see in galleries and street art. Not all have the primary purpose of being art but all hold artistic and creative values that can be seen through the process the intention the aesthetic qualities and the surrounding of the work. Some seem to have the primary purpose of being only art while others are created for commercial propaganda. While the pieces that are generally considered art by the public, have a better aesthetic quality and are initially easier to understand there can not be any set connotations as to what it to be determined as art or non art. And that it is purely what importance, feelings and values the individual viewing the work sees. Reference List Charlie, 2008. Demystifying the Creative Process http://www. productiveflourishing. com/demystifying-the-creative-process/ (accessed 28/04/2010) Gibbons,J. 2005 Art and Advertising. P. 1-12 New York: I. B Tauris co Ltd Goldman, A. 2005. Aesthetic Qualities and Aesthetic Value . in Aesthetics critical concept in philosophy J. O Young, p. 345-349 Oxon: Routledge. Hester, N 2007. Low and High: What is Art Anyhow  http://www.monstersandcritics.com/

Oil and Saudi Arabia Essay -- Essays Papers Oil Saudi Arabia Papers

Exposing the Saudi Arabian Royal Family, U.S. foreign policy, and the poverty currently occurring within Saudi Arabia Preface The current world dependence on oil leaves much to be said about the impact of Saudi Arabia and the Middle East on foreign policy and international politics. Presently the world's largest consumer of oil, the U.S. depends on Saudi Arabia and much of the Middle East for the energy to run its businesses, its homes, and most importantly, its automobiles. In the past few months U.S. consumers have felt the pressures of increasing gasoline prices as they struggle to commute and live their daily lives. This leaves the U.S. with important decisions to be made on behalf of its citizens and its position in the international realm. Saudi Arabia, the leader of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Companies), maintains a powerful position in negotiations with the U.S. and other countries. Its vast supply of oil directly effects per barrel pricing and is a unique bargaining tool in international politics. But Saudi Arabia is no ordinary country in today's world. Its borders are governed by a royal family of nearly 30,000 individuals, all of which share most of the wealth and almost all of the power. Its people, with foreign exceptions, are wholly Islamic and many practice the faith with a frightening sense of devotion. And despite the immense revenue generated by its oil reserves, part of its population still lives in absolute poverty. Although recently it has seen immense change, it is still a country fair behind the progressive world. This report draws from many publications written over the last twenty years exposing the unique situation in Saudi Arabia, while also utilizing recent headl... ... September 2003 (31 May 2004). ?Oil jumps back near $42,? (31 May 2004). ?Plots and bombs,? The Economist, May 1 2004: 47. ?Still at its mercy,? The Economist, May 22 2004: 10 ?The limits of reform,? The Economist, Mar 27 2004: 47. ?US Challenges and Choices Saudi Arabia: A View from the Inside,? The Atlantic Council of the United States, The Middle East Institute, The Middle East Policy Council, and The Stanley Foundation, (May 31, 2004). ?What if The Economist, May 29 2004: 69. William Powell, Saudi Arabia and its Royal Family, (New Jersey: Lyle Stuart Inc., 1982). World Bank Report 2003, ?Saudi Arabia,? Oil and Saudi Arabia Essay -- Essays Papers Oil Saudi Arabia Papers Exposing the Saudi Arabian Royal Family, U.S. foreign policy, and the poverty currently occurring within Saudi Arabia Preface The current world dependence on oil leaves much to be said about the impact of Saudi Arabia and the Middle East on foreign policy and international politics. Presently the world's largest consumer of oil, the U.S. depends on Saudi Arabia and much of the Middle East for the energy to run its businesses, its homes, and most importantly, its automobiles. In the past few months U.S. consumers have felt the pressures of increasing gasoline prices as they struggle to commute and live their daily lives. This leaves the U.S. with important decisions to be made on behalf of its citizens and its position in the international realm. Saudi Arabia, the leader of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Companies), maintains a powerful position in negotiations with the U.S. and other countries. Its vast supply of oil directly effects per barrel pricing and is a unique bargaining tool in international politics. But Saudi Arabia is no ordinary country in today's world. Its borders are governed by a royal family of nearly 30,000 individuals, all of which share most of the wealth and almost all of the power. Its people, with foreign exceptions, are wholly Islamic and many practice the faith with a frightening sense of devotion. And despite the immense revenue generated by its oil reserves, part of its population still lives in absolute poverty. Although recently it has seen immense change, it is still a country fair behind the progressive world. This report draws from many publications written over the last twenty years exposing the unique situation in Saudi Arabia, while also utilizing recent headl... ... September 2003 (31 May 2004). ?Oil jumps back near $42,? (31 May 2004). ?Plots and bombs,? The Economist, May 1 2004: 47. ?Still at its mercy,? The Economist, May 22 2004: 10 ?The limits of reform,? The Economist, Mar 27 2004: 47. ?US Challenges and Choices Saudi Arabia: A View from the Inside,? The Atlantic Council of the United States, The Middle East Institute, The Middle East Policy Council, and The Stanley Foundation, (May 31, 2004). ?What if The Economist, May 29 2004: 69. William Powell, Saudi Arabia and its Royal Family, (New Jersey: Lyle Stuart Inc., 1982). World Bank Report 2003, ?Saudi Arabia,?

Environmental issues and economics

Economic growth, unemployment and a better standard of living have always been the main objectives on the agenda of economists throughout the world. The environment is and has always been the major attribution to achieving these goals as it is the source of natural resources, many amenities and as a place to dump whatever waste, whenever necessary. Up to the 1960s there had never been the awareness of problems affecting the environment's role. The population started to grow rapidly since the industrial revolution, first in the west and then in the 20th century developing countries followed. Today the world population is over 6 billion and in relation to the rate of economic growth there has been a mass of extra pressure put on the environment. Also read this  Cheating in a Bottom Line Economy There is a great list of issues, disasters and environmental problems that have been discovered during the last forty years that are on the constant agenda of the majority of economist's decisions and that are in desperate need of a solution. Some economists choose to dismiss the issue altogether, for example the USA who make up only 5% of the population, yet contribute to using 25% of the world's energy and produce 22% of the world's CO2. For them to dismiss the allegations of their contribution to damaging the environment is a very serious issue as they refuse to cease the growth of their economy i.e. their car market. Their only attempts at solving this problem are unrealistic and would do little towards helping the environment. The main issues are the problems caused to the environment by global warming, nuclear disasters, water pollution, intensive farming, the loss of non-renewable sources and of course the cause of it all, rising population. When the environment becomes damaged it is due to a failure of the market (Demand and Supply). That is, as the environmental damage has not been taken into account when applying the concepts of economic growth. This can generally be accounted for by the lack of property rights, as there is nobody who can take the side of the environment and hold to account those who damage the sea, air, rainforest etc, so there is very little done about it. In almost every circumstance it is cheaper for businesses/ firms to pollute the environment than to attempt to clean up the damage they have caused. A good way of analysing the effects of production on the environment is to draw it on a diagram of the production possibility curve/ frontier to comprehend a range at which there can be production and environmental protection. At point Y – Maximum production and worst environmental conditions. At point Z – Environment is perfect but there is no production at all. At range X – There is production and environmental protection. There are five main aims of government policy which all contribute to affecting the environment in their own way. One of the main objectives of government is to reach full employment, which is economically, a very good position to be in for an economy. Full employment can and often does however lead to more factories, offices, shops, purchased cars, manufactured goods and therefore the possible loss of countryside which all lead to pollution, congestion etc. The same kind of damage is also caused by economic growth. A policy set by the government (especially monetarists) is to fight inflation that ordinarily results in unemployment, which is seen clearly from the Phillips Curve. Targeting and achieving low inflation will cut aggregate demand and so the environment actually suffers less damage. Improving the balance of payments deficit also contributes to less damage on the environment, as there is again a cut in aggregate demand. The final aim of government policy is to redistribute income accordingly to a specific school of thought e.g. 1945-1979 The rich were taxed heavily (income tax) to pay welfare state (help the poor) which inevitably boosted aggregate demand, harming the environment. Since about 1970 the concept of sustainable development has been more widely discussed. Sustainable development is about economic growth being the cause of damage to the environment. An economist named R.K. Turner once quoted that sustainable development is â€Å"to leave future generations an amount of wealth, which is at least equal to that inherited by the current generation†. Agenda 21 set up in 1992 was an attempt to solve this world problem for the generations. It was a conference in Rio where all the countries governments agreed to an outline plan to protect the environment, especially global warming. To follow this attempt, a further conference was set up in 1997 in Kyoto. In this conference legally binding targets were introduced to reduce CO2 emissions with the exception of developing countries that were allowed to increase CO2 emissions up to a limit as they industrialise. In order to apply these individual targets set for the environment within a country would have to produce an evaluation to establish whether the benefits are greater than the costs to the environment before starting a project. This is done through Cost-Benefit analysis, which is a way in which economists assess the private internal costs and benefits (relates to the firm/ businesses) and the social external costs and benefits (relates to society). The problems that arise with this method of assessment though is that it is very subjective and open to wide interpretation, as you cannot value pollution e.g. an eye sore or the gains of a quicker journey to work. Solutions to pollution and other social costs can be approached in two ways, through the private sector and the government sector. I order to control pollution and social costs in the private sector without the interference of the government, several approaches would need to be made. Property rights would need to be extended, the polluters and the pollutee would need to bargain (Coarse Bargaining) about pollution, there might need to be a merging between the polluter and the pollutee so that it would be in the polutee's best interest to clean up their act as the social costs would affect their profit levels. There might also have to be some altruism, which they can use as a marketing strategy. The price mechanism is also a strong solution to solving the problem of losing non-renewable goods e.g. oil. When demand exceeds supply then the prices rise and products like oil are instantly rationed which leaves an incentive to find alternatives. Alternatively for some products such as glass, paper, cans etc, it may become more economic to recycle as the prices for these scarce resources rise. However, i.e. with bottles, the factories used for recycling pollute the atmosphere as do the lorries collecting the bottles from the bottle bank as do the cars used by the public to take the bottles to the bank. Should the public sector fail to take these factors into account (market failure), there is a case for government intervention in order to apply a solution to pollution and other social costs. The government often sets standards as either an outright ban e.g. CFC's or as a partial ban e.g. leaded petrol. Other standards are also introduced that are often more difficult to enforce as they are not as effective as taxes and the government may face possible costs e.g. MOT tests. Taxes are deemed as effective and are therefore often imposed in an attempt to internalise external costs. These are effective, as the buyer has to pay the equivalent price for the damage to the environment; this is an effective disincentive to buy e.g. VAT and excise duty on petrol. The effect caused by added taxes is in this supply and demand diagram OP (price) & OQ (quantity) do not take damage to the environment into account As the taxes are introduced supply shifts to S2 due to the high price change at OP2. Subsequently this makes us aware of the damage caused to the environment and demand contracts to OQ2. The problems that arise however with indirect taxation are that the poor are consequently more affected than the rich are. One strategy that is now in the progress of being experimented within the USA that requires a combination of both the private and government sector. This involves the issuing of â€Å"permits to pollute†. This allows firms/ businesses to compete amongst themselves after the government has set up a structure by which permits are sold for the right to pollute. Over several years the permits are then cut and it is left to the private sector companies to compete with each other or to put investment into efficient power generators that are more environmentally friendly that require less or no need for permits. It is clear that there are many arising environmental issues becoming apparent to the economist throughout the stages of meeting government policies. Despite that there has been noticeable actions taken out since these problems have been discovered, there is still a long way to go.